The following questions, answers, and comments about Classical Adlerian philosophy, theory, and practice have been excerpted from discussion forums, newsgroups, and e-mail correspondence. The text has been edited minimally for clarity and readability. All of this material is protected by copyright and may not be reproduced without the expressed consent of Dr. Stein at htstein@att.net.

4. The Dark Side of Human Nature

Question from Forum: In reviewing our your conversation elsewhere in Behavior OnLine and reading your comments in this Forum, I am struck again and again about what a thoughtful, 'decent' and respectful approach it is. I do wonder though if Adler had anything to say about the darker side of human nature. Most theorists seem to emphasize this. For Freud there's repressed impulses, for Jung there's the shadow. Even contemporary 'schools' touch on this to a degree. Cognitive therapists are concerned with negative self-attributions and constuctivists with dysfunctional narratives. Did Adler have much to say about the darker side?

Therapeutically, the challenge of Adlerian psychotherapy is not to merely uncover or integrate this dark side but to overcome it mentally, emotionally, and behaviorally. In this respect, Adlerian theory and practice is more optimistic about human nature and therapeutic change than many other approaches. Adler believed that an increase in the feeling of community was the primary key to the prevention and cure of mental illness, addiction, and criminal behavior.

(Additional Comments About Inferiority and Aggression)

Parental neglect, rejection, or abuse can easily provoke deep, painful feelings of insecurity or worthlessness in children. Many grow up yearning for revenge. However, pampering, overprotection and indulgence can also set the stage for intensified inferiority feelings. Pampered children may "feel humiliated" when they are not the center of attention or given everything they want. Spoiled children can become very aggressive or abusive toward parents if they eventually discontinue their indulgence. Very ambitious, competitive children, who have accomplished or preferred siblings, may feel painfully inferior by comparison, and harbor "dark thoughts" about their rivals.

Children, as well as adults, can temporarily mask or relieve their inferiority feelings with high activity, anger, and aggression. They can get "high" on this volatile mixture and often have the illusion of being very powerful. By dominating, hurting, frightening, or exploiting others they indulge in pretenses of victory. Their shallow conquests frequently involve the perverse satisfaction of defeating someone. This "dark side" strategy can become very addictive and result in a progressive indifference to the pain of others.

Question from Forum: Your additional comment like many of your contributions is a wise one and seems animated by a kind of 'radical' environmentalism. When I raised the question of the dark side I neglected to make this consideration explicit. The nature/nurture pendulum nowadays has swung (too far?) toward the nature pole, reflecting developments in biology and perhaps the political sphere. Do you/Adler believe that personality development is solely a function of the environment?

In the early 1900's Adler recognized the impact of organ inferiority on the formation of the personality. He even hypothesized an inferiority of the CNS in most cases of schizophrenia. Yet he also pointed out the potential of productive over-compensation in certain organ deficiencies, (i.e. Beethoven's deafness and Demosthenes' stuttering).

A negative environment does not always lead to problem children, nor does a positive environment guarantee happy, cooperative children. The decisive factor is what the child makes of his situation when, after trial and error, a choice is made that seems to promise security and significance. Without the critical capacity to foresee later consequences, many errors are possible.

In Adler's own words: "It is neither heredity nor environment which determines the individual's relationship to the outside world. Heredity only endows him with certain abilities. Environment only gives him certain impressions. These abilities and impressions, and the manner in which he "experiences" them-- that is to say, the interpretation he makes of these experiences--are the bricks which he uses in his own "creative" way in building up his attitude toward life. It is his individual way of using these bricks--or in other words, it is his attitude toward life--which determines his relationship to the outside world."

At the beginning of Adler's first book, THE NEUROTIC CONSTITUTION, we find one of his favorite aphorisms: "Omina ex opinione suspensa sunt." (Everything is subject to one's opinion of it).

5. Emotions and Feelings

Question from Forum: What I am learning about the importance of values and the social responsibility is interesting, though sometimes it seems rather 'heady", what about the heart?

By approaching our patients with warm, friendly understanding, we provide the beginning correction for their missing or deficient feeling of connectedness. First, we empathize with their emotional distress, and then gradually help them realize that most of their thoughts, feelings, and actions are consequences of their immediate or future (unconscious) goals. Patients may frequently understand the logic of trying a new direction, but their familiar feelings and emotions do not provide a sufficient spark to move in that unfamiliar direction. At that point, we may try eidetic or guided imagery to promote an emotional breakthrough. Providing corrective "missing experiences" in group therapy may also be effective.

We try to balance our therapeutic interventions so that the head and the heart are equally stimulated.

6. Treatment of Criminality

Question from Forum: What is the Adlerian approach to the treatment of criminality?

We do not have special strategies for depression, anxiety, criminal behavior, or other disorders. Our challenge is to invent a unique therapeutic intervention for each "individual" who may be using symptoms or disruptive behavior in the service of a hidden goal. Initially, using a therapeutic adaptation of the Socratic method, question the client's mistaken thinking. Later on, we may use eidetic and guided imagery to generate conjunctive feelings. If needed, we may use role-playing to practice new, cooperative behavior. However, unless we also uncover and dissolve the hidden fictional goal, the mental, emotional, and behavioral changes may be superficial or temporary.

For Adler's thinking about the private logic of criminals, early childhood influences, and treatment recommendations, read "Crime and Related Disorders (Chapter 17) in THE INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY OF ALFRED ADLER, edited by Heinz and Rowena Ansbacher. Edward Hoffman, in his new biography of Adler, THE DRIVE FOR SELF: ALFRED ADLER AND THE FOUNDING OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY, offers some brief comments.

(Quoting Hoffman) "...Adler described most criminals, regardless of socioeconomic background, as dominated by a sense of inferiority and a lack of social feeling. Ultimately, he emphasized, they are cowards with "a cheap superiority complex," overcoming their victims through darkness, surprise, formidable weaponry, or sheer numbers.

Quite optimistically, Adler asserted that his approach could "change every single criminal," but acknowledged that such a goal was unrealistic, especially since "we find that in hard times, the number of criminals always increases." Rather, Adler offered several concrete recommendations for preventing a further escalation of crime. These included establishing programs to eliminate unemployment through job training, reducing the ostentatious display of wealth that "can act as a challenge to the criminal," and instituting group sessions with prison inmates to heighten their self esteem and social feeling. Interestingly, Adler also suggested that the mass media "not mention the names of criminals or give them so much publicity," and commented that, "We should not imagine that criminals can be terrified by the thought of capital punishment, [which] sometimes only adds to the excitement of the game."